Introduction Oil palm (Elais guineensis) plantations and palm oil industry have already become mainstream economic for Indonesia. Actually, oil palm is non-native plant. It was imported from West Africa by the Dutch Colonial in 1848 and large scale and commercial plantation development started in 1911.
A unit of on-farm palm oil business should consist of a plantation and a mill that can support producing fruits and processing bunches to crude palm oil (CPO). However, in order to make palm oil business profitable a mill will requires from 6,000 up to 10,000 ha in order guaranteeing sustainable harvest of fruits to feed the mill regularly.
There is nothing bad about oil palm tree. As natural plant it is the same as other corps exists in Indonesia. When oil palm is being developed well it will create profit and job opportunities, but done it wrong will bring serious irreversible environmental and social impacts. The unavoidable impacts of palm oil industry are land preparation, maintenance of land and crops, fruit harvesting and bunches processing to crude palm oil (CPO) are brought up consequences.
Palm plantations: conversion and deforestation At the initial phase of development, palm plantation expansion and operations always have impacts on natural ecosystems. The development of plantation takes place trough clearing land from natural vegetations of ‘logged over’ areas, secondary forests and including the rich biodiverse primary tropical rainforests. On the other words, palm plantation replaces forests and other natural vegetations to monoculture plantations.
The mechanisation process of plantation development destroys natural structures of soil and its morphology trough decomposition, compaction and sedimentation which not only pollutes nearby watercourses and river habitats, but also emit huge amount of storage carbon to the air and alter if not destroys sources of surface and ground water quality and quantity.
When palm plantation is being developed in peatland areas, the plantation manager needs to control the water table in order to make sure that the areas can be planted through mechanisation of canalisation and drainages. The establishment of roads and water table control is the only way to make it possible to be planted.
Furthermore, monitoring and documentation by Sawit Watch identified hundred thousands of oil palm locations (permits) are overlapping with natural lowland vegetations and peatland forest areas in particular the major oil palm plantation development provinces namely West Kalimantan 706379.1 ha, Central Kalimantan 239,388.93 ha, and Riau 792,618.08 ha.
Recently Oxfam estimates that by 2020, the emissions resulting from land-use change in the palm oil-sector may have reached between 3.1 and 4.6 billion tonnes of CO2 – 46 to 68 times the annual saving the EU hopes to be achieving by then from biofuels. Furthermore, most disastrous is the production of palm oil-based biodiesel from the conversion of Indonesian peatland tropical forest, requiring 420 years of biofuel production to pay back the carbon debt.
Application of Agrochemicals Fertilisation (chemical fertilisers) is very important for palm cultivation. Plantation requires at least 16 essential natural elements for the growth and development palm tree both organic and chemical fertilisers inputs. The fundamental elements of non-organic fertilisers used in maintenance and cultivation of oil palm plantations are nitrogen, phosphate, magnesium, calcium, zinc, ferrum, etc. For instance a minimum dosage of 2,5 kg (nitrogen), one 1,5 kg triple super phosphate, 2,5 kg MOP, and 1,0 kg kieserite twice a year.
The application of agrochemicals namely pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides are unavoidable in cultivation of oil palm plantations. These hazardous agrochemicals are widely used at maximum two times annually in order to control weeds and grass with composition of 75 grams ally and 1,5 litres of gramoxone with coverage spraying output of 650 litres per hectare. In other words, within 1 ha palm plantation requires controversial 20 litres of pesticides used annually (Warintek, 1999). Within one hectare of oil palm plantation has its natural and potential invasive insects and pests should require regular application of chemical pesticides and insecticides which harmful to human health and nearby environment.
Many researches reveal that not only agrochemicals but also pesticides and herbicides are harmful to human health and environmental. Further recent study of Oxfam 2008 reveals harmful side effects of chemical fertilisers’ application to earth climatic cycle. It also cited the Crutzen et.al investigation on emissions of nitrous oxide, which has GHG 296 times more potent than carbon dioxide, released through decomposition of nitrogen-based fertilisers.
Active palm oil mill effluents (POME) Palm Fresh Fruit Bunches (FFB) need to be processed within 24 hours of harvest, one CPO mill is usually built for about at least every 4,000 - 5,000 ha of plantation. Of the various types of waste produced, POME is responsible for the most pollution. POME is a mixture of water, crushed shells and a small amount of fat residue. Most CPO mills have outdoor basins in which POME is stored and somewhat detoxified (by adding oxygen) but these basins easily overflow during heavy rain or intensive production. Because of its high Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), POME is highly polluting to waterways and has significant negative effects on aquatic life downriver (Wakker, 2004).
Currently palm oil production in particular palm oil mill is identified as one of among many sources of greenhouse gas emissions of methane in palm oil industry activities. Using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) on palm plantation and mill involve series of activity used intensive fuel and electricity, process burnt and boiling, and waste effluents may results in significant GHG. The POME treatment releases CO2 between 1400-1500 kg/ton CPO.
Alarming food security The development of palm plantation has not only replaced natural vegetations but also has been altering functional of land utilisation. Based on ministry of agriculture regulation, scheme of the plantation and mill are under minimal legal obligation to set aside 20% of plantation concession. On the other words, the company may have to ensure 80% of their concession set aside for partnership with local communities.
Having applied to the applicable schemes, both private companies and state-owned company tend to apply legal obligation that allows them to get as big portion of land as possible for their own plantations. From some options, the favourable scheme is 80:20 meaning that partnership with local communities is implemented on the basis of 80% for company and 20% return back to communities. When this is an applicable approach becomes a trend for palm plantation development in the future there should no other ways to avoid massive replacement and competition with local crops.
Investigation in 2004 by Sawit Watch shows positive relationship between the expansion of oil palm plantation and declining of agricultural harvest and other production yields due to massive conversion of lands into palm plantations.
Ways forward Remedial measures against both past mistakes and ongoing negative impacts on social and environmental will contribute to sustainable development. Having put such rehabilitation measures on both physical and non-physical key operations are at the forefront pre-conditions to solution because they will ensure social acceptance and help to enable restoration of environmental. Herewith, a proposed application of combined rights based approaches and correct environmental frameworks are expected to ensure participatory and informed processes towards better understanding and mitigation of impacts switch to continuous improvement of practices and positive outcomes.
One of the many ways to make palm oil industry socially acceptable and environmentally responsible, both plantation and mill should be developed through rigorous correct identification and assessment of both social and environmental impacts, applicable mitigation and adaptation measures, effective implementation monitoring and evaluation plans in place.
Conclusion Given obvious ongoing and potential consequences of having 7.4 million hectares existing palm plantations, the government and palm oil industry should have legitimate social responsibilities and legal environmental obligations in order to manage and reduce impacts, improve positive outcomes before considering future expansion of new palm plantings. The extant impacts of the operations of palm plantations and mills on social and environmental are unavoidable.
Indonesia as the world’s largest palm oil producer has to put effective policy measures and legal framework enforcement to tackle impacts have to reduce, including the application of fertilisers and pesticide and herbicides.
A unit of on-farm palm oil business should consist of a plantation and a mill that can support producing fruits and processing bunches to crude palm oil (CPO). However, in order to make palm oil business profitable a mill will requires from 6,000 up to 10,000 ha in order guaranteeing sustainable harvest of fruits to feed the mill regularly.
There is nothing bad about oil palm tree. As natural plant it is the same as other corps exists in Indonesia. When oil palm is being developed well it will create profit and job opportunities, but done it wrong will bring serious irreversible environmental and social impacts. The unavoidable impacts of palm oil industry are land preparation, maintenance of land and crops, fruit harvesting and bunches processing to crude palm oil (CPO) are brought up consequences.
Palm plantations: conversion and deforestation At the initial phase of development, palm plantation expansion and operations always have impacts on natural ecosystems. The development of plantation takes place trough clearing land from natural vegetations of ‘logged over’ areas, secondary forests and including the rich biodiverse primary tropical rainforests. On the other words, palm plantation replaces forests and other natural vegetations to monoculture plantations.
The mechanisation process of plantation development destroys natural structures of soil and its morphology trough decomposition, compaction and sedimentation which not only pollutes nearby watercourses and river habitats, but also emit huge amount of storage carbon to the air and alter if not destroys sources of surface and ground water quality and quantity.
When palm plantation is being developed in peatland areas, the plantation manager needs to control the water table in order to make sure that the areas can be planted through mechanisation of canalisation and drainages. The establishment of roads and water table control is the only way to make it possible to be planted.
Furthermore, monitoring and documentation by Sawit Watch identified hundred thousands of oil palm locations (permits) are overlapping with natural lowland vegetations and peatland forest areas in particular the major oil palm plantation development provinces namely West Kalimantan 706379.1 ha, Central Kalimantan 239,388.93 ha, and Riau 792,618.08 ha.
Recently Oxfam estimates that by 2020, the emissions resulting from land-use change in the palm oil-sector may have reached between 3.1 and 4.6 billion tonnes of CO2 – 46 to 68 times the annual saving the EU hopes to be achieving by then from biofuels. Furthermore, most disastrous is the production of palm oil-based biodiesel from the conversion of Indonesian peatland tropical forest, requiring 420 years of biofuel production to pay back the carbon debt.
Application of Agrochemicals Fertilisation (chemical fertilisers) is very important for palm cultivation. Plantation requires at least 16 essential natural elements for the growth and development palm tree both organic and chemical fertilisers inputs. The fundamental elements of non-organic fertilisers used in maintenance and cultivation of oil palm plantations are nitrogen, phosphate, magnesium, calcium, zinc, ferrum, etc. For instance a minimum dosage of 2,5 kg (nitrogen), one 1,5 kg triple super phosphate, 2,5 kg MOP, and 1,0 kg kieserite twice a year.
The application of agrochemicals namely pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides are unavoidable in cultivation of oil palm plantations. These hazardous agrochemicals are widely used at maximum two times annually in order to control weeds and grass with composition of 75 grams ally and 1,5 litres of gramoxone with coverage spraying output of 650 litres per hectare. In other words, within 1 ha palm plantation requires controversial 20 litres of pesticides used annually (Warintek, 1999). Within one hectare of oil palm plantation has its natural and potential invasive insects and pests should require regular application of chemical pesticides and insecticides which harmful to human health and nearby environment.
Many researches reveal that not only agrochemicals but also pesticides and herbicides are harmful to human health and environmental. Further recent study of Oxfam 2008 reveals harmful side effects of chemical fertilisers’ application to earth climatic cycle. It also cited the Crutzen et.al investigation on emissions of nitrous oxide, which has GHG 296 times more potent than carbon dioxide, released through decomposition of nitrogen-based fertilisers.
Active palm oil mill effluents (POME) Palm Fresh Fruit Bunches (FFB) need to be processed within 24 hours of harvest, one CPO mill is usually built for about at least every 4,000 - 5,000 ha of plantation. Of the various types of waste produced, POME is responsible for the most pollution. POME is a mixture of water, crushed shells and a small amount of fat residue. Most CPO mills have outdoor basins in which POME is stored and somewhat detoxified (by adding oxygen) but these basins easily overflow during heavy rain or intensive production. Because of its high Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), POME is highly polluting to waterways and has significant negative effects on aquatic life downriver (Wakker, 2004).
Currently palm oil production in particular palm oil mill is identified as one of among many sources of greenhouse gas emissions of methane in palm oil industry activities. Using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) on palm plantation and mill involve series of activity used intensive fuel and electricity, process burnt and boiling, and waste effluents may results in significant GHG. The POME treatment releases CO2 between 1400-1500 kg/ton CPO.
Alarming food security The development of palm plantation has not only replaced natural vegetations but also has been altering functional of land utilisation. Based on ministry of agriculture regulation, scheme of the plantation and mill are under minimal legal obligation to set aside 20% of plantation concession. On the other words, the company may have to ensure 80% of their concession set aside for partnership with local communities.
Having applied to the applicable schemes, both private companies and state-owned company tend to apply legal obligation that allows them to get as big portion of land as possible for their own plantations. From some options, the favourable scheme is 80:20 meaning that partnership with local communities is implemented on the basis of 80% for company and 20% return back to communities. When this is an applicable approach becomes a trend for palm plantation development in the future there should no other ways to avoid massive replacement and competition with local crops.
Investigation in 2004 by Sawit Watch shows positive relationship between the expansion of oil palm plantation and declining of agricultural harvest and other production yields due to massive conversion of lands into palm plantations.
Ways forward Remedial measures against both past mistakes and ongoing negative impacts on social and environmental will contribute to sustainable development. Having put such rehabilitation measures on both physical and non-physical key operations are at the forefront pre-conditions to solution because they will ensure social acceptance and help to enable restoration of environmental. Herewith, a proposed application of combined rights based approaches and correct environmental frameworks are expected to ensure participatory and informed processes towards better understanding and mitigation of impacts switch to continuous improvement of practices and positive outcomes.
One of the many ways to make palm oil industry socially acceptable and environmentally responsible, both plantation and mill should be developed through rigorous correct identification and assessment of both social and environmental impacts, applicable mitigation and adaptation measures, effective implementation monitoring and evaluation plans in place.
Conclusion Given obvious ongoing and potential consequences of having 7.4 million hectares existing palm plantations, the government and palm oil industry should have legitimate social responsibilities and legal environmental obligations in order to manage and reduce impacts, improve positive outcomes before considering future expansion of new palm plantings. The extant impacts of the operations of palm plantations and mills on social and environmental are unavoidable.
Indonesia as the world’s largest palm oil producer has to put effective policy measures and legal framework enforcement to tackle impacts have to reduce, including the application of fertilisers and pesticide and herbicides.
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